History

One of the few important architectural monuments constructed during the long rule of Emperor Aurangzeb from 1658 to 1707 is the Badshahi Mosque (Punjabi and Urdu: بادشاہی مسجد‎, or “Imperial Mosque“). It is the mosque of the Mughal period in Lahore, the capital Pakistani province of Punjab, Pakistan. It is currently the world’s fifth-largest mosque and was undeniably the world’s largest mosque from 1673 to 1986 when Islamabad’s Faisal Mosque was completed. The mosque is situated west of Lahore Fort on the outskirts of Lahore’s Walled City and is widely regarded as one of the most iconic landmarks in Lahore. Although it was constructed in a time of relative decline late in the Mughal era, its beauty, elegance, and size, like no other monument in Lahore, epitomize Mughal cultural achievement. Replete with immense walls, four tapering red sandstone minarets, three vast marble domes, and an open courtyard that was said to accommodate up to 100,000 people, it was destroyed and later rebuilt by the British.

Night view of Badshahi Mosque, Pakistan

The mosque remains the largest on the Indian subcontinent, considered one of the last great monuments of the Mughal period. Emperor Aurangzeb built the Badshahi Mosque in 1671, with the building of the mosque lasting for two years until 1673. The mosque, with an exterior decorated with carved red sandstone with marble inlay, is an important example of Mughal architecture. Under the guidance of Muzaffar Hussain (Fida’i Khan Koka), the brother-in-law of Aurangzeb and the governor of Lahore, construction of the mosque began in 1671. It was originally intended to safeguard a strand of the hair of the Prophet as a reliquary. Its great scale is inspired by the Delhi Jama Mosque, designed by the father of Aurangzeb, Shah Jahan.

It remains the largest mosque of the Mughal period and is Pakistan’s second-largest mosque. The mosque was used as a garrison by the Sikh Empire and the British Empire after the collapse of the Mughal Empire and is now one of Pakistan’s most iconic sights. A square measuring 170 meters on either side is basically the plan for the Badshahi Mosque. Since the north end of the mosque was built along the edge of the Ravi River, a north gate like the one used in the Jama Mosque could not be placed, and a south gate was also not constructed to preserve the overall symmetry. The prayer hall inside the courtyard features four minarets that echo the four minarets at each corner of the perimeter of the mosque in miniature.

The Badshahi Mosque features a monumental gateway that faces the Hazuri Bagh quadrangle and Lahore Fort.

The mosque’s full name “Masjid Abul Zafar Muhy-ud-Din Mohammad Alamgir Badshah Ghazi” is written in inlaid marble above the vaulted entrance. It is said that the rooms above the entrance gatehouse the hair of the Prophet Mohammed and other artifacts. When it is illuminated in the evening, the mosque looks lovely. The mosque is also located next to the Roshnai Gate, one of the original thirteen gates of Lahore, which is located to the southern side of the Hazuri Bagh. The Tomb of Muhammad Iqbal, a poet widely revered in Pakistan as the founder of the Pakistan Movement that led to the development of Pakistan as a homeland for the Muslims of British India, lies near the entrance of the mosque.

The mosque stands at each corner in a walled enclosure with high minarets, all constructed on a high plinth that raises it above the town and fort. Each corner of the mosque itself is marked by another set of minarets. In the imperial view, the importance of the mosque was such that it was built just a few hundred meters west of the Fort of Lahore. Added to the fort was a special gate facing the mosque and called the Alamgiri gate. The field between the future Hazuri Bagh garden was used as a parade ground where his troops and courtiers would be inspected by Aurangzeb. Since the latter was built on a six-meter plinth to help avoid flooding, the Hazuri Bagh seems to be at a lower level than the mosque. The tomb of Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, who is credited with playing a major role in maintaining and rebuilding the mosque, is also located near the mosque’s entrance.

Interior view of Badshahi Mosque

The elevated central Iran façade is arcaded. Completing the composition are three white marble double-domes, the central one significantly larger than the others. In 1818, in the Hazuri Bagh facing the mosque, known as the Hazuri Bagh Baradari, Maharaja Ranjit Singh constructed a marble building which he used as his official Royal Court of Audience. The Sikhs from other monuments in Lahore may have plundered marble slabs for the baradari. He noted that the mosque was used as an exercise ground for the Sipahi infantry when William Moorcroft of England visited Lahore in 1820. Twenty years later, a moderate earthquake reached the shore and the delicate marble turrets at the top of each minaret collapsed. The open turrets were used a year later as gun locations when Ranjit Singh’s son, Sher Singh, occupied the mosque during the Sikh civil war to bomb Lahore Fort.

In 1849 the British took possession of Lahore from the Sikh Empire. The mosque and the surrounding fort continued to be used as a military garrison throughout the British Raj. It was not until 1852 that the British set up the Badshahi Mosque Authority to oversee the mosque’s reconstruction so that as a place of worship it could be restored to Muslims. It was not until 1939, although repairs were carried out, that substantial repairs began under the supervision of architect Nawab Zen Yar Jang Bahadur. Up until 1960, the repairs proceeded and were completed at a cost of 4.8 million rupees.

When hardline mullahs (Muslim religious leaders) protested at the visit of the late Princess of Wales in 1991, the mosque captured international headlines; her skirt was deemed too short and the mosque director was blamed for providing (the then) HRH, a non-Muslim, with a copy of the Quran and allowing her to dress immodestly in the sacred precincts. The case went to court and ended by asking the litigating mullahs to avoid wasting the time of the judge. The Mosque of Badshahi was tentatively identified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993. In 2000, an inlay of marble was repaired in the main hall of prayer. Using red sandstone imported from the original Mughal source near Jaipur, in the Indian state of Rajasthan, replacement work on the red sandstone tiles on the large mosque courtyard began in 2008.

The mosque’s interior is decorated in painted plaster relief work with intricate floral and cartouche motifs, as well as with white marble inlay. An enormous sandstone paved courtyard stretches over an area of 276,000 square feet after passing through the massive gate, and which can accommodate 100,000 worshipers while acting as an Idgah. Single-aisled arcades enclose the courtyard. The chamber of prayer has a central arched niche flanking it with five niches that are around one-third the size of the central niche. There are three marble domes in the mosque, the largest of which is in the middle of the mosque and is flanked by two smaller domes.

Full view of Badshahi Mosque

The Tomb of Allama Mohammed Iqbal stands in the courtyard, a modest monument in red sandstone to the philosopher-poet who first postulated the concept of an independent Pakistan in the 1930s. The mosque’s interior and exterior are decorated with intricate white marble carved from a floral pattern typical to the architecture of Mughal art. The carvings at the Badshahi Mosque are considered to be special pieces of Mughal architecture that are fine and unsurpassed. On either side of the main hall, the chambers contain rooms used for religious instruction. In the prayer hall, the mosque can host 10,000 worshippers.

Information Sources:

1. orientalarchitecture.com
2. lonelyplanet.com
3. archnet.org
4. wikipedia

The Topkapı Palace (Turkish: Topkapı Sarayı; Ottoman Turkish: طوپقپو سرايى‎, Ṭopḳapu Sarāyı; meaning –Cannon Gate Palace), a museum in Istanbul, Turkey, which displays the Ottoman Empire’s imperial collections and houses in its library an extensive collection of books and manuscripts. Topkapi Palace is the focus of more vivid stories than are put together by most museums in the world. It served as the main residence and administrative headquarters of the Ottoman sultans in the 15^th and 16^th centuries. In 1924, a year after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, it opened as a museum. Not only for its architecture and collections but also for the history and culture of the Ottoman Empire that it remembers, the Topkapı Palace Museum is notable.

The Topkapi Palace, which also means Cannon Gate Palace, once operated during the 15th century as the main residence and administrative headquarters of the Ottoman Empire’s influential sultans. Construction began in 1459, six years after the conquest of Constantinople, under the order of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror. To differentiate it from the Old Palace (Eski Saray or Sarây-ı Atîk-i Âmire) in Beyazıt Square, Topkapı was originally named the “New Palace” (Yeni Saray or Saray-ı Cedîd-i Âmire). In the 19^th century, it was given the name Topkapı, meaning Cannon Gate.

Hagia Eirene, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul.

During the Ottoman Empire’s 600-year reign, starting with Mehmed II, about 30 sultans ruled from the Topkapi Palace for almost four centuries. In the late 1450s, some years after capturing Constantinople (Istanbul), the capital of the Byzantine Empire, in 1453, he ordered the building of a palace. Medmed took up residence in 1478, and three years later, after his death, successive sultans often restored and enlarged the palace, resulting in the palace’s medley of evolving styles and decorations of Islamic, Ottoman, and European architecture.

Topkapi Palace is situated on the 700,000 square meter area between the Golden Horn and Bosphorus in the Istanbul peninsula, and the Topkapi Palace was walled away from the city to provide the requisite protection and privacy. Over the years, with significant repairs after the 1509 earthquake and the 1665 fire, the complex expanded. Four main courtyards and several smaller buildings make up the palace complex. 1,000-4,000 inhabitants were housed in the massive Topkapı Building, including up to 300 in the harem. In the harem, female members of the Sultan’s family stayed, and in the Imperial Council house, leading state officials, including the Grand Vizier, held meetings.

Tower of Justice, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul

After the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey on 3^rd April 1924, Topkapi Palace began to be used as a museum. Another important aspect of Topkapi Palace was that it was the Turkish Republic’s first museum. The palace complex has hundreds of rooms and chambers, but as of 2020, only the most important ones are open to the public, including the Ottoman Imperial Harem and the treasury, called hazine, where the Diamond of the Spoonmaker and the Topkapi Dagger are on display. Ottoman clothing, arms, armor, miniatures, religious relics, and illuminated manuscripts, such as the Topkapi manuscript, are also included in the museum collection.

Topkapi Palace is always a crowded and fascinating attraction point that draws tourists from all over the world and has a great interest and effect on tourists visiting it, Topkapi Palace is also a popular point for visitors who live in Turkey and visit Istanbul, as well as for those who want to see and discover the history of the Ottoman Empire and more about the history of the Ottoman Empire; Since there are so many significant collections, architectural buildings and nearly 300,000 archive documents in Topkapi Palace. The Topkapi Palace is part of the Istanbul Historic Areas, a group of Istanbul sites that UNESCO listed as a World Heritage Site in 1985.

Gate of Salutation, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul

The first courtyard is the largest and only public courtyard (sometimes called the Outer Courtyard). Through the Imperial Gate, any unarmed individual could enter during the reign of the Ottoman Empire. Originally dated from 1478, this huge gate is now paved in 19th-century marble. The central arch leads to a high-domed passage; the framework at the top is decorated by gilded Ottoman calligraphy, with verses from the Qur’an and sultans’ tughras. The open space of the courtyard made it suitable for ceremonies and processions, and it was probably the most vibrant of the squares in the palace.

The Middle Gate (Ortakapı or Bab-üs Selâm) led to the Second Court of the palace, used for the business of running the empire. Only the sultan and the legitimate sultan (mother of the sultan) were permitted on horseback through the Middle Gate in Ottoman times. Everybody else, the Grand Vizier included, had to dismount. The Tower of Justice is one of the most hilarious things to concentrate on after passing the second courtyard. There is also the Royal Divan that was used to make decisions about and around the empire. The curious point is that, instead of attending and chairing the sessions, the Sultan did not chair these meetings, he only listened behind the gold curtain at the back of the room. If the Sultans did not support the decision, they would close the curtain or tap on the screen to let them know that they disagreed with the decision they had made.

The Library of Sultan Ahmed III, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul

The second courtyard was also home to the kitchens and confectionaries of the palace, which now houses the collection of imperial porcelain, as well as the External Treasury, which displays imperial arms. The gate of Felicity at the end of the courtyard is another point of Topkapi Palace, hosting the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire while the ceremonial occasions were displayed, the Sultans sat down there and observed the ceremonial occasions. There is a small stone in front of this gate that was used to show the Sancaki Serif, or Prophet Muhammad’s standard, before the army and the Sultans went to battle against their own enemies.

Like other items in the Museum of the Topkapi Palace, the pieces in both collections were either created by the Sultan’s workshops, bought at markets, collected as gifts from foreign dignitaries, or gathered from conquered populations. Objects in the collection of porcelain demonstrate the empire’s vast scope, with items acquired from China and Japan. Celadon from China was particularly valued as tableware because of the belief that if the food served inside it was poisoned a superstition that points to the constant fear of assassination of the Ottoman sultans, it would change color.

In the typical configuration of an Ottoman building, with baths and a mosque, as well as recreational rooms such as a pipe room, the dormitories are designed around the main courtyard. Many pious foundation inscriptions can be found on the outside and inside of the complex regarding the different duties and maintenance of the quarters. The quarters are made of red and green painted wood, in contrast to the rest of the palace. Beneath the Tower of Justice on the western side of the Second Court is the gateway to the Harem. When rooms are closed for renovation or stabilization, the visitor route through the Harem changes, so some of the areas listed here may not be available during visits by visitors/tourists.

Interior of the Twin Pavilions, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul

Opposite the Imperial Divan, delicious scents of beautiful Ottoman food spread, these foods ranged from all kinds of desserts to meals cooked by very talented Ottoman Empire cookers. These meals were cooked on a regular basis for around 5,000 palace employees. After the 1574 fire that destroyed the kitchens, the architect of the court, Mimar Sinan, restored them. Two rows of 20 large chimneys form the reconstructed kitchens; Mimar Sinan has added these chimneys. In addition to displaying kitchen utensils, the buildings today contain a collection of silver gifts, as well as a large porcelain collection.

The collection of the Topkapi Palace contains rare manuscripts, illustrated books, and early Quran copies, all of which can be looked over in the reading room by scholars. Another part of Topkapi Palace is the Harem, probably one of the most mysterious parts of palaces where harems are the past because all kinds of tricks and plans have been made here to gain power and be the Sultans’ one of the most loved woman. The harem was constantly renovated, like the rest of the palace, and grew according to need. A very mazelike structure and several types of architecture are the results. The Harem was a place, as common wisdom would have it, where the sultan could indulge in debauchery at will. These were the imperial family quarters in a more prosaic reality, and every aspect of Harem’s life was regulated by custom, duty, and ceremony. The word ‘harem’ means ‘forbidden’ or ‘private’ literally.

Abdülmecid I transferred the imperial court from Topkapı Palace to the newly built Dolmabahçe Palace in the mid-19^th century. Some of the Topkapi Palace buildings have maintained their functions, and others have fallen into disrepair. The Fourth Courtyard (IV. Avlu), also known as the Imperial Sofa (Sofa-ı Hümâyûn), was the sultan and his family’s innermost private refuge, containing a variety of pavilions, kiosks (köşk), gardens and terraces. It was originally a part of the Third Courtyard, but to better differentiate it, recent scholars have identified it as more distinct. Many of the buildings were restored when the palace became a museum in 1924, and parts of the complex are frequently closed off for this reason. More than three million visitors a year come to the museum.

Information Sources:

1. istanbul.com
2. muze.gen.tr
3. britannica.com
4. wikipedia

The Bayezid II Mosque (Turkish: Beyazıt Camii, Bayezid Camii) is located in Istanbul’s Bayezid Square, a well-known city in Turkey. The exact location of the mosque is near to the skeletons of early Constantinople’s Theodosius Scene (a previous headquarter of the Turkish government which was constructed by Constantine in the 4th century and was named after him as Constantinople). It is the Ottoman imperial mosque of the early 16^th century. It is the second large Ottoman complex built after Fatih Mosque in Istanbul, and the third complex built after Amasya and Edirne by Bayezid II (1481-1512). With the income of Pirinç Han in Bursa and a han, bedesten, and baths in Salonica, it was operated.

Bayezid II Mosque, Istanbul

The old “Fatih Mosque” mosque was completely destroyed by tremors (natural calamity) and was rebuilt in modern fashion and style from scratch. It is not clear who the mosque’s designer was, but its beauty shows that the architect was mindful of the Ottoman and modern design techniques prevalent at the time the mosque was reconstructed. Ordered by the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II, the Beyazidiye Camii was the second large imperial mosque complex to be erected in Istanbul after the conquest. The complex consisted of the Islamic academy, a community kitchenette designed during the period between 1501 and 1506.

Without any clear order on the broad site, the buildings of the complex are placed without signs of an outer precinct wall. Around the mosque to the west, the soup-kitchen, caravanserai, Quranic School, and the tombs are clustered, while the madrasa and the baths are isolated, situated about 120 and 250 meters west of the mosque, respectively. The Beyazidiye complex is of important historical and architectural importance, as was the oldest complex, the Fatih Mosque was subsequently demolished by earthquakes and entirely reconstructed in a different style. After the earthquake in 1509/915 AH, the mosque dome was partly restored, and repairs were carried out by Mimar Sinan in 1573-1574/981 AH. In 1682-1683/1093 AH and 1746/1156 AH, the minarets were burnt separately, and in 1754 the dome was restored again.

Interior view of Bayezid II Mosque

The main dome of Bayezid Mosque is 16.78 meters in diameter and four pillars support it. Artistic masterpieces include stone and wood craftsmanship and stained glass. Byzantine ruins recovered the courtyard paving materials and pillars used as a reservoir for ablutions. The standard of Byzantine workmanship is particularly demonstrated by these pillars. An inscription above the entrance to the northeast courtyard indicates that renovations were carried out in 1767 as well. The mosque is currently undergoing renovation, while the madrasa, baths, and the Quranic school have been renovated to house libraries and museums at different dates.

The architect of the complex is not firmly known, but it is assumed that Yakubşah ibn Islamşah was the chief architect, while Mimar Hayreddin is also named. At least one of the assistant architects of Yakubşah succeeded him in completing the Medrese. It is known from a grant from Bayazid II that the architect was a nephew of the Greek architect of the Fatih Mosque (Atik Sinan or Christodoulos). The Veranda is located on the complex’s northwest side. The size of this veranda is similar to that of the mosque in size. On both sides of the courtyard, the two entrances to the courtyard were neatly painted. There are a number of columns set at similar distances from each other in the courtyard. The total number of columns is twenty, made of very traditional granite obtained from the churches’ skeletons, and there are 24 small domes on the veranda.

The mosque itself is about 40 meters (130 feet) square, with a dome measuring 17 meters (56 feet) in diameter. The configuration is that of a central dome carried along the main axis by two semi-domes and two arches running along the secondary axis. The mosque is built entirely of cut stone, using colored stones and marbles from nearby Byzantine ruins. This place’s floor is made of various marble shades, which is an idea that attracts people who visit the mosque. During the rule of Murad IV (1623-1640/1032-1049 AH), the ablution fountain at the center of the court was renovated with a roof. During Ramadan until the 1920s, the courtyard arcade hosted an open bazaar each year.

Courtyard view of Bayezid II Mosque

The mosque building is made out of marble and highlighted by various colored stones recovered from nearby areas. The hall of prayer is entered from a portico through a muqarnas portal. It is the same size as the courtyard of the mosque and consists of a domed central space extended along the qibla axis by two semi-domes and side arcades filled with four small domes. There are walkways on the North and South that do not include the balconies, but the length of the mosque becomes long. At the base of the main dome, there are twenty windows, while the smaller domes have seven windows each.

The west side of the mosque is covered by very long corridors, extending the length of the mosque. The central dome, measuring 16.80 meters in diameter at a height of 44 meters, is mounted on four monumental piers, woven into a column separating the side arcades from the main space. Originally planned as four domed rooms to act as a wandering dervish hospice, in the sixteenth century, the wings were incorporated into the prayer hall and now consist of three consecutive rooms divided by archways. The two minarets are located at the ends of these wings.

In 1767, to house the library of Seyhülislam Haci Veliyüddin Efendi, a small domed building was attached to the end of the southwest wing. Three sides of the mosque, extending from the hospice wings to the main street, are enveloped by a cemetery with walls. There is a small garden behind the mosque, which contains the tombs of Sultan Bayezid II, his daughter Selçuk Hatun, and Grand Vizier Koca Mustafa Reşid Pasha. There is an arcade of shops beneath the garden whose rentals were initially meant to fund the mosque. Along the cemetery walls, the side entrances into the mosque, which are situated next to the hospice wings, are accessible via gates. At the outer ends of the hospice wings, two minarets are attached; the northeast minaret was replaced after an earthquake, while its original terracotta decoration is preserved by the southwest minaret, restored in 1953-54.

The mosque’s former public kitchens were converted in 1882 by Sultan Abdulhamid II into the State Library of Istanbul and house over 120,000 books and 7000 manuscripts. Located on Yeniçeriler Lane, at the corner of Beyazid Külhani Street, is the public bath (hamam) of the Bayezid complex, one of the largest in the region. It’s a double-bath with adjoining parts for men (east) and women (west). The dressing room is entered from the main road by the men’s section, while the women’s section is entered from the side street. Abandoned during the Republican period for several years, the baths were rebuilt to house the central library of the University of Istanbul in the 1960s. In the 2000s and early 2010s, the colossal Bayezid II Hamam was rebuilt before being reopened as the Turkish Hamam History Museum in 2015.

Information Sources:

1. archnet.org
2. muslimmosques1.wordpress.com
3. wikipedia

The Fatih Mosque (Turkish: Fatih Camii, “Conqueror’s Mosque” in English) designed by Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II to commemorate his conquest of Constantinople, is the sanctuary and central building of the imperial complex. It is an Ottoman mosque in Istanbul’s Fatih district, Turkey. The original mosque on the site was built on the site of the Holy Apostles’ Church between 1463 and 1470. His tomb is behind the mosque and is invariably packed with worshipers; Mehmed wanted to be buried here as well. The mosque was badly damaged in the earthquake of 1766 and was reconstructed to a new style in 1771. It is one of Istanbul’s greatest examples of Ottoman-Islamic architecture and represents a significant stage in the growth of Ottoman classical architecture.

Aerial view of the Fatih Mosque and the surrounding Külliye.

The architect of the mosque, as of the complex, was a man by the name of the Greek architect Atik Sinan (Sinan the Elder). Between 1463/867 AH and 1470/875 AH, primary sources say that he founded the mosque. The mosque is named after the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, the Ottoman sultan who conquered Constantinople in 1453, known in Turkish as Fatih Sultan Mehmed. The mosque has suffered a lot of damage since its completion and has been restored. Fatih Mosque Complex used to include many other buildings, including madrasas (religious high schools), student dormitories, hospice, library, hospital, market, hammam, and tombs; only madrasas, library, hospice, and tombs survive today, sadly. As a result of the fires, earthquakes, and road development in the 1950s, other buildings were demolished.

First, after some damage caused by the 1509/915 AH earthquake, the mosque was rebuilt. The mosque dome then collapsed in the 1766/1179 AH earthquake and was completely rebuilt in 1771/1185 AH by the order of Mustafa III. As part of the Fatih Mosque, Sahn-i Seman Medrese, a major center for the study of various traditional Islamic sciences, such as theology, law, medicine, astronomy, physics, and mathematics, was founded by the Turkish astronomer Ali Qushji, invited to his court in Istanbul by Mehmed. Also, there is a wide courtyard in the hospice on the southeast of the Fatih Mosque and it is adorned with sixteen beautiful columns made of antico verdo, granite, and marble. These columns are thought to have been saved from the Holy Apostles’ Church. After Hagia Sophia, the Church of the Holy Apostles was the most powerful church during the Byzantine era and a number of Byzantine emperors were buried there, including Constantine I.

Fatih Mosque, Istanbul

The original complex, running along the Golden Horn side of Fevzipasa Lane, covered almost a square area of 325 meters (1,066 feet) on one side. In the center of the symmetrically organized complex, the mosque stands at the center of an expansive, open precinct, all aligned 32 degrees east of the south in accordance with the qibla. The complex is located at the top of one of the seven hills in Istanbul and on the former site of the Church of the Byzantine Holy Apostles. However, during the earthquakes of 1509, 1557, and 1754, the original mosque, built-in 1470, was severely damaged. Finally, after the main dome collapsed and the walls were irreparably damaged, an earthquake on 22^nd May 1766 completely destroyed it. In 1771, during the reign of Mustafa III, the architect Mehmet Tahir completed the present mosque, constructed on a radically different plan from the mosque of the fifteenth century.

The first Fatih Mosque had a single central dome supported on the side of the qibla by a single semi-dome of the same diameter and suspended on four arches, the dome having a diameter of 26 meters. The Fatih Mosque Complex Courtyard is one of the main mosque patios, so the funeral ceremonies of important people take place in the Fatih Mosque. The second mosque, founded by Sultan Mustafa III (1771) after the earthquake of 1766, was built on a square plan. It has one central dome with four semi-domes supporting it. The biggest street market in Istanbul (Fatih Pazarı) takes place around Fatih Mosque every Wednesday.

Walls on the northwestern and southeastern sides and a line of madrasas on its lateral (northeastern and southwestern) sides enclosed the precinct around the mosque. Two gates provided entry to the precinct on the northwestern and southeastern walls, as did a number of gates between the madrasas. From the original construction, the courtyard, main entrance portal, and lower portions of the minarets remain, with the remainder consisting of the Baroque restoration of 1771. A wide prayer hall followed by a courtyard formed part of the mosque. The courtyard was rectangular with an arcade surrounding it, three of which remain to this day.

Interior view of Fatih Mosque

A prayer hall with a tall dome supported on the side of the qibla by a semi-dome of equal radius and three monumental arches on the three remaining sides. Three domed bays to the east and west were flanked by this ensemble. The Fatih Mosque’s present interior is basically a replica of earlier designs invented by Sinan, frequently replicated in Istanbul by himself and his successors (this technique is emulative of the Hagia Sophia). The portal, the mihrab, and the lower shafts of the minarets belonging to the original building have also been integrated into Mustafa III’s new mosque. The central dome with a diameter of 26 meters is surrounded by four semi-domes on each axis supported by four wide columns of marble. Each one of them has two minarets with twin galleries.

The calligraphy inside the mosque and the mimbar exhibits a Baroque influence, but the inferior quality white tiles are a weak contrast with mosques such as the Rüstem Pasha Mosque’s İznik tiled splendor. Mihrab dates from the original building. Granite, white marble, and greenstone are carved into the columns of the gallery. Every window’s tympanum is decorated with Qur’anic inscriptions in white and green marble on the side of the precinct. Ceramic tiles decorate the tympanum of two windows inside the portico of the mosque with other inscriptions. As with other imperial mosques in Istanbul, the Fatih Mosque was built to serve both religious and cultural needs as a kulliye, or complex with adjacent structures.

Fatih Mosque courtyard

The entrance to the prayer hall is marked by the raised dome and the green and white voussoir of the portico’s central bay. With the addition of a balcony above its ribbed semi-vault and a raised terrace (mahfil) with side bays at its front, the muqarnas portal, retained from the original construction, has been transformed on the inside. The Sahn-ı Seman, eight great medreses, four on each side, are to the north and south of the mosque. The Türbe of Sultan Mehmet II and his wife Gulbahar Hatun are in the cemetery on the Kiblah side behind the mosque. Following the earthquake, both were rebuilt. The interior’s decorative painting reflects the baroque influence on Ottoman architecture of the 18^th century.

There is a domed library on the Kiblah side of the mosque, linked to it, which was built in 1724. One of its doors opens into the street, while the other two doors open into the mosque’s inner courtyard. The library is undergoing repairs, and the books at the Suleymaniye Library are being secured. The Fatih Mosque is open every day from 9am-6pm but closed at prayer times; during Friday noon prayers, the mosque is very busy. The side walls were taken in to accommodate sheltered terraces on either side that have rows of faucets for ablution when restoring the mosque. On the eastern corner adjoining the marble royal lodge (hünkar mahfili), a ramp was designed to allow the sultan on his horse to enter.

Two minarets with single balconies were in the original Fatih Mosque. They were reconstructed after the earthquake with two minarets, combining the old foundations and the lower shafts. During the 19th century, the minarets were rebuilt in empire style; in 1965, their stone spires were replaced by lead spires, with no modification to the balconies. Like other public mosques in Istanbul, Fatih Mosque does not have an entrance fee or a ticket price, so donations are welcome. There is no longer a hospital, a market, kitchens, and a hammam belonging to the original complex. In order to repair damage caused by the earthquake on August 18, 1999, the mosque is currently under reconstruction.

Information Sources:

1. archnet.org
2. istanbultourstudio.com
3. wikipedia

Dolmabahçe Palace (Turkish: Dolmabahçe Sarayı, IPA: doɫmabahˈtʃe saɾaˈjɯ) was built between 1843 and 1856, at a time when life was not convenient or comforting for the average person in Istanbul or the rest of the Ottoman Empire. The palace is situated in Istanbul’s Beşiktaş district, Turkey, on the Bosporus Strait’s European coast. Originally, the Ottoman fleet used a shallow bay to anchor their ships. The coast was filled in after the 17th century and turned into a lovely garden with a few pavilions called the Besiktas Waterfront Place complex, where the sultans used to relax and enjoy the views. Home to the last six sultans of the abolished Ottoman Empire, it represents all that for more than 600 years has been right and wrong about their rule and reign. From 1856 to 1887 and from 1909 to 1922 (Yıldız Palace was used in the interim period), the palace served as the main administrative center of the Ottoman Empire.

A view of Dolmabahçe Palace from the Bosporus strait

Initially, a shallow bay where the Ottoman navy used to anchor, during the rule of Ahmed I (1603-1617) the coast was filled in and Selim II (1566-1574) constructed a pool and kiosk here. During Ahmed III’s rule (1703-1730), palatial buildings added by Murad IV (1648-1687) were reconstructed. Mahmud I (1730-1754), his successor, is known to have resided at this complex known as the Besiktas Coastal Palace, and along its hillside, he made the Bayildim Kiosk. In the Turkish language, Dolmabahce literally means ‘filled garden.’ Sultan Abdülmecid I ordered the construction of a new palace in 1843 to eliminate these old structures, and the construction was completed in 1856 by the imperial architects Garabet and Nikogos Balyan.

The building cost 5 million Ottoman gold lira, or 35 tons of gold, the equivalent of approx. $1.5 billion in value today (2013). This sum was equal to about a quarter of the annual tax revenue. The building was actually funded by debasement, through large paper money problems, as well as by foreign loans. After his death, Dolmabahce was used by the successor of Abdulmecid as a secondary palace, which became a winter residence, while Beylerbeyi Palace was used as a summer residence. It was only after two sultans that the imperial family returned with Sultan Mehmed V to Dolmabahce and remained there until the proclamation of the Republic at the end of the Liberation War.

Ceremonial Hall, with the chandelier, said to have been given by Queen Victoria

During the reign of Mehmed V (1909-1918), the imperial family moved back into the Dolmabahçe Palace and it was from here that the last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI was exiled to Paris after the abolition of the Sultanate in 1921 by the Turkish National Assembly. Until the Caliphate was abolished in 1924, Caliph Abdülmecid Efendi lived at the palace; some of his own paintings still decorate the walls of the palace today. The Parliament agreed to use Dolmabahce as a presidential palace, so Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey) stayed here during his visit to Istanbul and invited foreign guests. He died in the palace on November 10th, 1938, and it was later turned into a museum in 1952. Today, the palace is run by the Directorate of National Palaces, Milli Saraylar Daire Başkanlığı, who is in charge of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.

It is definitely an impressive palace on the Bosphorus, with over 110,000 square meters of building on 250,000 square meters of ground. From west to east, the Treasury Gate and Imperial Treasury (Hazine-i Hassa), the Furniture Registry (Mefrusat Dairesi), the State Gardens (Mabeyn Bahçesi), are in the long strip between the tall land wall and the waterfront. There are three main parts of the palace: Administrative apartments (Selamlik or Mabeyn-i Hümayun), Ceremonial Hall (Muayede Salonu), and Imperial Harem (Harem-i Hümayun). The Crown Prince’s palace (Veliaht Dairesi), the waiting-quarters men’s (Musahiban Dairesi) with dormitories behind it, the servants’ house (Agavat Dairesi, Bendegan Dairesi) and the guards’ house (Baltacilar Dairesi), and the imperial kitchen (Matbah-i Amire).

Crystal staircase in the palace

The area of 110,000 m² is restricted on the east side by the Bosporus, while a steep precipice connects it on the west side so that a comparatively small space has remained for a garden complex that would usually surround such a palace after the construction of the current 45,000 m² monoblock Dolmabahçe Palace. There are distinct back gardens covered by tall walls in the ceremonial and harem quarters of the main palace. The largest palace in Turkey is Dolmabahçe; it consists of 285 rooms, 46 halls, 6 baths (hamam), and 68 toilets. The former garden has a glass kiosk (Camli Kösk) and bird houses (Kusluk) built along the landwall by Mehmed IV, while the latter has the inner treasury (Iç Hazine Dairesi), a plant nursery (Fidelik), small kitchens and the separate apartments of the highly valued women in the harem, called the higher favorites (Gedikli Cariyeler Dairesi).

During the years, certain of the smaller buildings were lost or demolished. There are two monumental gates giving access to the administrative portion of the main garden (but only one is open today), the Treasury Gate (Hazine Kapisi) and the Imperial Gate (Saltanat Kapisi). In order to create a modern hybrid, the concept contains eclectic elements from the Baroque, Rococo, and Neoclassical styles combined with typical Ottoman architecture. The architecture and decor of the palace represent the increasing influence of European styles and norms during the Tanzimat era on Ottoman culture and art. The exterior, the Bosporus view in particular, reveals a classical European two-wing structure separated by a large avant-corps with two lateral avant-corps.

The Crown Prince’s palace has a wide back garden with two wooden houses known as the departure kiosks (Hareket Köskleri), the Chief Eunuch’s quarters (Kizlaragasi Dairesi), a carpet workshop in Hereke (Hereke dökümhanesi), and a sunhouse (sera). To please the guests, there is a wide hall at the entrance, a crystal staircase (banisters), and other decorative elements. Other impressive parts of the Selamlik section are a couple of large halls upstairs decorated with Hereke carpets, crystal chandeliers, and fireplaces, and a fine imperial Hamam decorated with Egyptian alabaster.

Two colossal gates lead into the gardens of the administrative quarters to the west, the Treasury Gate (Hazine Kapi) and the Imperial Gate (Saltanat Kapi), while seven small portals open into the back gardens of the various parts along the landwalls. There are five wide gates on the iron fence along the shore to get out of the sea. With a floor area of 2,000 m² (22,000 sq ft) and a 36 m (118 ft) high dome, the two usable areas are separated by the large Ceremonial Hall (Muayede Salonu). The main entrance for tourists is situated on the narrow southern side because the harem had to be totally separated from the outside world.

The Ceremonial Hall is a wide square hall of monumental dimensions, with an area of over 2,000 square meters and a ceiling of 36 meters. It is adorned with a giant Hereke tapestry and a 4.5 ton crystal chandelier sent by Queen Victoria. There were major state and religious rituals here. The ornate imperial gate, with an equally ornate clock tower just inside, is the touristic entrance to the palace grounds. Sarkis Balyan designed the tower for Sultan Abdül Hamit II (r. 1876–1909) between 1890 and 1895. With premium Bosphorus views, there is an outdoor cafe close here. Dolmabahçe has the world’s largest collection of crystal Bohemian and Baccarat chandeliers. The famous Crystal Staircase is made of Baccarat crystal, brass, and mahogany and has the form of a double horseshoe.

With the exception of the plan (traditional Turkish house symmetrical scheme) and Turkish rugs, even the interior furniture is of modern Western style. Around 1910, electricity and central heating systems were introduced. There are 285 rooms in the palace, 46 reception halls and galleries, 6 Turkish baths (Hamam), and 68 bathrooms. Over 600 oil paintings are there. A series of large central halls are arranged around the palace, aligning the longitudinal axis with smaller rooms and corridors. For the decoration, costly stones were used, such as Marmara (Proconnesian) marble, Egyptian alabaster (calcite, also known as onyx-marble), and Pergamon porphyry.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s deathbed

The palace’s facilities adopted the highest technical quality from the very beginning. The administrative portion is accessed by a formal garden to the west. It consists of four main halls on two floors, connected by a monumental staircase in the middle, and has a highly formalized and symmetrical plan. As his health deteriorated, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk spent the last days of his life in the palace. At 9:05 A.M., he died, in a bedroom situated in the former harem section of the palace on November 10, 1938. In the palace, all the clocks were stopped and set for 9:05 after his death. The clocks outside his room are now set to the proper time in Turkey, but the clock always points to 9:05 in the room in which he died.

There is a garden entrance into the lower space, called the Men’s Mounting Chamber (Selamlik Binek Salonu). From this space, as well as the imperial bath complex, which is lit from above, the study rooms, library, and prayer rooms used by the Sultan are accessed. Visitors/tourists are not permitted on their own to visit the inland areas. They have to wait for the harem and selamlik to join one of the scheduled tours that run separately. Frankly, the tour guides are bad at their work and should be sacked. For private receptions as well, such as major weddings, the Ceremonial Hall and gardens are available today.

Information Sources:

1. allaboutistanbul.com
2. archnet.org
3. turkishtravelblog.com
4. wikipedia

The largest and one of the oldest mosques in the city of Aleppo, Syria, is the Great Mosque of Aleppo, also known as the Umayyad Mosque (Arabic: جَـامِـع حَـلَـب الْـكَـبِـيْـر‎, Jāmi‘ Ḥalab al-Kabīr). During the reign of Umayyad Caliph al-Walid I ibn ‘Abd al-Malik (r. 705-715/86-96 AH) or his successor, Sulayman (r. 715-717/96-99 AH), the mosque was first built in the heart of the old city of Aleppo. It is situated in the Ancient City of Aleppo district of al-Jalloum, a World Heritage Site, near the entrance to Al-Madina Souq. The mosque is allegedly home to the remains of Zechariah, John the Baptist’s father, both of whom are revered in Islam and Christianity. During the recent Syrian War, the Great Umayyad Mosque in Aleppo, originally founded by the first imperial Islamic dynasty and currently part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site, once again stood as a battlefield, but this time it lost its most powerful and resilient feature, the Seljuk Minaret of the 11^th century.

On the site of the former Roman temple and Byzantine cathedral built by St. Helen (mother of Constantine the Great), the Great Mosque, or Umayyad Mosque of Aleppo, was built. The mosque was founded by the Umayyad Caliph al Walid in 715 and completed by his successor Caliph Suleiman. The mosque has always been the center of the battlefield during all invasions. The Crusaders, the Fatimids, the Ayyubids, the Mongols, and the Mamluks all engaged in the demolition and eventual restoration of the mosque. Historian of Architecture K. A. C. Creswell attributes its construction solely to the latter, quoting 13^th century Aleppine historian Ibn al-Adim who wrote Sulayman’s intent was “to make it equal to the work of his brother al-Walid in the Great Mosque at Damascus.” Al-Walid built the mosque using materials from the so-called “Church of Cyrrus”, another tradition says.

Great Mosque of Aleppo, Syria

The Abbasids, who vandalized the mosque and looted its ornaments and artwork as revenge against the Umayyads, were the first tragedy to hit the mosque. The mosaics and ornaments were destroyed by a Byzantine emperor, according to other historians, when he conquered the city and burned the mosque to the ground. The building has undergone numerous repairs and reconstructions throughout its history in response to natural disasters (earthquakes and fires) and to alter its use, resulting in the growth of its surroundings. After a great fire, Nur al Din rebuilt it in 1169 and the mosque was destroyed again during the 1260 Mongol invasion.

In 1090 AD, only for another dynasty to conquer the city and ruin the mosque, the Seljuks restored the mosque and constructed the distinguished minaret, leaving only the minaret intact. After the extension of the plan made by Nour Al-Dine Zangi in 1158 AD, the Muslim commander who fought the Cursaders, the mosque’s plan was finalized. Architectural historian Jere L. Bacharach, however, writes that Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik, a brother of al-Walid and Sulayman who served as governor of the local province (Jund Qinnasrin) sometime before 710 until at least the early period of Sulayman’s rule, was the most probable patron of the mosque.

The mosque remains an iconic Islamic landmark, despite of all the structural modifications. The completed design of the plan (following the reconstruction of Zangi) was arranged in a rectangular 150 × 100-meter hypostyle pattern. In the centre, there is a wide marbled courtyard with pavilions, fountains, porticoes and gates that provide access to the mosque from all sides (the eastern gate, however, can provide prayers with direct access to the praying hall). The Mirdasids governed Aleppo in the second half of the 11^th century and constructed a single-domeed fountain in the courtyard of the mosque. The 45-meter-high minaret was built at the northwest corner of the mosque by the Shia Muslim qadi (‘Chief Islamic Judge’) of Aleppo, Abu’l Hasan Muhammad, in 1090, during the reign of Selyuk Governor Aq Sunqur al-Hajib. During the rule of Tutush, its building was completed in 1094. Hasan Ibn Mufarraj al-Sarmini was the architect of the project.

Three wide aisles, divided by a series of colonnades, all parallel to the Qibla wall, form the prayer hall. Within that wall, in its middle, a yellow-stoned Mihrab is pierced, directing visitors to the path of prayer. Qalawun’s renovations, along with a central dome in front of the Mihrab, replaced the originally-flat ceiling with a cross-vault structure. An ornamented Maqsurah (enclosed space) which holds the tomb of the remains of Prophet Zakariya sits alongside the Mihrab. A lavish robe, embroidered with silver-colored Quranic verses, drapes the tomb. After a great fire that had destroyed the earlier Ummayad building, the mosque was rebuilt and enlarged by the Zengid sultan Nur al-Din in 1159; in 1260, the Mongols razed the mosque.

Recently (2003-04), the Great Mosque of Aleppo underwent extensive reconstruction, during which the courtyard and the minaret were especially restored. Maybe the most prominent feature of the mosque is the Minaret, which has been standing since the 11th century on the southern side of the building. Several historians say that, in order to construct the foundations of the minaret, engineers had to dig deep enough to reach the water. With metal braces, the base was reinforced, supporting the 50-meter frame. As for the ornamentation, the minaret was covered with moldings of Kufic and Naskhi scripts and calligraphic bandeaus. The mosque was badly damaged during clashes between Free Syrian Army armed groups and Syrian Army forces on 13 October 2012. A presidential decree was issued by President Bashar al-Assad to form a committee to rebuild the mosque by the end of 2013.

The main prayer hall is the shrine of Zachariah (father of John the Baptist), a wood-carved minbar (pulpit) from the 15th century, and an elaborately carved mihrab (niche indicating the direction of Mecca). The remaining sides of the courtyard are occupied by three more halls. Each of the eastern and northern halls has two naves, while there is one in the western hall. The latter is more industrial architecture. The east hall dates to the time of Malik Shah (1072–92) and the north hall was renovated during Mamluk sultan Barquq’s reign (1382–1399), but largely retained its original 11^th century character. The building represents the ancient past and layered history of Aleppo itself: today’s mosque does not maintain its original shape, having undergone a number of renovations and reconstructions in its continuous use for over a thousand years.

Mosque in 2013, after the destruction of the minaret

The Great Mosque has a small museum containing a number of ancient manuscripts attached to it. Similar to the Great Mosque of Damascus, a maqsurah was constructed in the form of a square domed room raised by one step above the floor level of the prayer hall and decorated with Kashan tiles that cover all the internal surfaces of its walls. The entrances to the maqsurah include a wide arched gate supported by two strong columns and topped with capitals and a bronze door screen. The recently demolished minaret of the mosque captured the attention of many scholars who give interpretations of its unique historical and aesthetic importance. In the early Islamic culture, Terry Allen, who researched the development of architecture and decoration, saw the minaret as an example of a conscious revival of local late antique architectural ideas in northern Syria, exemplified in the architect’s use of classifying elements such as moldings, blind arches, and bands of inscription.

Information Sources:

1. sacred-destinations.com
2. archdaily.com
3. archnet.org
4. wikipedia

Nushabad (Persian: نوش آباد‎, also Romanized as Nūshābād; also known as Noshābād) is the central district of Aran Va Bidgol which is located about 5 kilometers in the north of Kashan, Isfahan province, Iran. Its population was 10,476 at the 2006 census, including 2,859 households. Nushabad means a city of cold, tasty water. It is well-known for its man-made underground city, called Ouee (or Ouyi), used as a shelter against invasions and attacks by inhabitants. During Sassanid and pre-Islamic times, it was dug up four floors underground 1500 years ago. A prominent piece of ancient architecture is known to be the underground city of Ouyi (Noushabad), situated 5 km north of Kashan, Isfahan province. It experiences harsh weather as Noushabad city is situated in the central desert area of Iran. Noushabad has a very warm temperature during the day and it gets especially cold during the nights.

The people of Nooshabad, who were the capital residence, began digging one of the most amazing underground structures in Iran about 15,000 years ago in the pre-Islamic period, especially during the reign of the Sassanid dynasty. Originally, this remarkable tunnel complex, 8 km north of Kashan, grew around a freshwater spring, credited with providing delicious, crystal-clear water. Due to the fear of enemy invasions, citizens created this secret city. For this town, they used high-intelligence methods so that it was unknown to present Nooshabad residents until 2006, when one of the residences accidentally discovered this place when he tried to dig a well in his house.

The entrance of the underground city of Nooshabad

Today, only part of the tunnel system is accessible to tourists and these sections are frequently subject to flooding (note the two-color tone of the walls reflecting the level of the flood), but even a simple descent to the first level gives an idea of the difficulty of this ancient project of engineering. The reason this city is called Noushabad (meaning the ‘city of cold tasty water’) is because one of the Sassanian kings who passed through this region stopped here in ancient times to drink water from a well and found this water exceptionally clear and cold. He, therefore, ordered the construction of a city around the well and called it Anoushabad, which eventually became Noushabad.

This labyrinthine area, consisting of three-story tunnels, was composed of chambers, air ducts, staircases, canals, and booby traps. The individual chambers were mixed over the years, and air ducts, water pipes, storage areas, and toilets were all created to create a sustainable underground city that was used during times of war as a shelter. Each family had a sort of room of their own, with a tunnel running down the length of these rooms, similar to the hallway of a hotel. While it is difficult to excavate some large parts of this city because of the infiltration of water and waste into it, overall, three floors of this man-made city were found 4-18 meters away from the surface of the earth. The height of this place was appropriate for an average human height, but in certain areas, in order to pass the vestibules and entrances, they need to bend.

One explanation for the creation of this underground city is thought to be to offer an escape from the region’s elevated daytime temperature. At one-meter intervals, there are remaining 700-year-old fat-burning lamps on walls. On the upper floor and in this way, they also considered several tunnels; the fresh air circulated throughout the area. The main explanation for the carving of the underground city of Noushabad, however, came from the fact that this area was vulnerable in the past, suffering from raids, and that the inhabitants could shelter there during such attacks by creating an underground chain of passages underneath the entire city. They could enter any place in the city via these passages without being seen.

Inside view of Nooshabad

As passageways between floors, vertical tunnels were used and the U-shaped tunnels were used for ventilation. The ventilation system works on the basis of the difference between the internal air pressure and the external air pressure, which allows air to flow into the underground city. To connect houses and social centers, such as the bathhouse and the mosque, as well as the castle located near the underground town, passage tunnels were built. There were many distinct openings to access the underground town. Some of these openings were placed inside people’s houses and others were located in important meeting areas, such as just outside the city, the main fort. Without the need to go outside, people could survive for many days in the underground tunnels.

It is listed on Iran’s National Heritage List; it is the world’s largest underground city with an area of 4 square kilometers, 4 to 18 meters deep. During the Mongol invasion in the 13th century, the tunnels, which were put to good use, served especially well as an emergency shelter since there were many entrances to the underground chambers, some of which appeared inside the houses of the city. In this underground city, there are three levels, planned in a way that moves from down to up to the various levels necessary. To prevent enemies from accessing the upper floors, this made it easier for the citizens sheltering in the underground area.

Some may not even have learned this city’s name since it was not discovered until around 20 years ago (in 2006). It should also be noted that many areas of this vast subterranean city, which are scattered on the ground almost throughout the city, are still being explored and not yet open to tourists.

Information Sources:

1. surfiran.com
2. lonelyplanet.com
3. apochi.com
4. wikipedia

A late Roman extension to the ancient city of Palmyra (تدمر), in the Syrian Desert, was the Camp of Diocletian (معسكر ديوقلسيان). The complex was built in the late 3^rd century CE under the Roman Emperor Diocletian and served as the Legio I Illyricorum’s military headquarters. After the eastern frontier of Rome was destabilized by Sasanian attacks from Persia and the rebellion of Zenobia, the district was established to act as a military outpost (267-271). It was under the rule of Emperor Diocletian, between 284 and 305, that the hegemony of Rome over the region was once more secured.

Palmyra broke away from Rome during the Third Century Crisis to establish the short-lived Empire of Palmyra. In 272, Aurelian recaptured the town and, after another failed uprising, it was sacked in 273 by the Romans. Under Sosianus Hierocles, the governor of Syria during Diocletian’s rule, the camp was built. The excavation of most of the site was the responsibility of a Polish archaeological team from the University of Warsaw. The city (Palmyra) was re-fortified with a new set of city walls enclosing a much smaller area after the Roman reconquest. As a semi-independent trade center, it lost its former significance, becoming a central military outpost instead. This is expressed in the virtual absence of Palmyra from historical literature; it is mentioned merely as the foundation of the Legio I Illyricorum in the Notitia Dignitatum, a record of imperial offices in the late 4^th century.

Camp Of Diocletian: General view and Gate

Of the remaining remains, there are two particularly notable buildings. The Principia of the Roman Legion, also known as the Temple of the Standards, is situated on a hill west of the camp. This structure was built between 293 and 303, under Sosianus Hierocles. The structure, possibly due to unstable foundations, is poorly maintained. The massive flight of stairs leading to the portico of the entrance sank into the earth. The apse of the internal shrine remains somewhat intact, along with a few standing columns. Several roles seem to have served the house, including troop accommodation, arms storage, and the promotion of a military cult. To the east, the site has a commanding view of the ruins of the ancient city.

A group of buildings covering an area of 4 hectares (9.9 acres) in an enclosure at the western end of the city was the area known today as the Camp of Diocletian. To the east are the remains of the Temple of Allat (معبد اللات), which predates the establishment of the Camp of Diocletian (معسكر ديوقلسيان). It was established over an even earlier sanctuary in the second century (first century BCE). Equated with Ishtar in Mesopotamia, Atargatis in northern Syria, and Athena in Greece, Allat was a goddess of local origin. At the site, a statue of the goddess Athena was discovered, copied from the Greek sculptor, Phidias. The compound’s wall featured a huge lion sculpture from about 50 BCE that was moved to the garden of the museum (متحف).

View of columns, looking towards the Valley of Tombs

The complex may also have included the soldiers’ barracks quarters, but it is uncertain if the Roman forces were actually quartered there in Palmyra. Alternatively, they may have lodged in the town while the “camp” may have served as the headquarters of the legion. The pre-existing Temple of Allat also enveloped the city. The overall design of the site is similar to that of a contemporary camp at Luxor in Egypt, and a symbol of how militarized Roman architecture had become in the unsettled environment of the late 3rd century, similar to the palace at Antioch and Diocletian’s Palace in Split.

Palmyra’s archaeological ruins, like the Camp of Diocletian, are at tremendous risk. Since May 2015, the city and nearby areas have been under the influence of the jihadist faction of the Islamic State, dedicated iconoclasts who have deliberately targeted archaeological heritage for destruction in both Syria and Iraq. Many cases of explosives being planted in the site have been recorded, which may include this area. A Polish archaeological team from the University of Warsaw excavated the site. The excavations, led by Dr. Kazimierz Michalowski, revealed a number of buildings that were thought to be guard quarters, staircases, and side entrances to the complex.

Camp Of Diocletian: Capitals

The works have found that the colonnade via praetoria is a legacy of older structures and that the building of the camp is possibly pre-dated by a century. The layer of occupation preceding the camp, which included a residential quarter and funeral artifacts dated from the first century CE, was also discovered. In addition, the excavations found several additions, including a coin and jewelry hoard, dating to the Byzantine period.

Information Sources:

1. syriaphotoguide.com
2. wikipedia

A fine example of Persian art, culture, and architecture, the Golestan Palace (Persian: کاخ گلستان‎, Kākh-e Golestān) is the former royal Qajar complex in the capital city of Iran, Tehran. It is the precious gem sitting in the heart of Tehran bearing Pahlavi kings’ memories from the Safavid period. It is the capital’s highlight and attracts many tourists from Iran and abroad on a regular basis. The Golestan Palace, one of the oldest historical monuments in the city of Tehran and a World Heritage Site, belongs to a group of royal buildings once enclosed within the mud-hatched walls of Tehran’s arg (“citadel”). It consists of gardens, royal houses, and 18^th and 19^th century collections of Iranian crafts and European presents.

The palace sits in an area that was the northern border and gateway of the city during the Qajar period, originally named Tehran Arg, which is a good measure to find out how far the city has grown since then. During the Safavid period, the palace was built and added to this structure by the next dynasties. Today, 17 palaces, museums, and halls make up the complex. Although there was a Safavid-era citadel on this site, it was Nasser al-Din Shah (r 1848–96), impressed by what he’d seen of European palaces, who created the ‘Palace of Flowers’ visitors see today. Originally, it was much larger, with internal and external parts containing departments, ministries, and private living quarters, but under the Pahlavis, many nearby buildings were pulled down.

The Golestan Palace was used for formal royal receptions during the Pahlavi period (1925–1979), and the Pahlavi dynasty built their own palace (the Niavaran Complex) in Niavaran. During Naser al-Din Shah Qajar kingdom, the main modifications were made. He was the first Iranian king who traveled a lot to the western countries and was fascinated by their architecture because his kingdom was long (49 years) and so he tried to construct similar structures in Tehran. In between 1925 and 1945, a large portion of the buildings of the complex was destroyed on the orders of Reza Shah. The centuries-old Qajar palace, he claimed, should not impede the growth of a modern city. Commercial buildings in the new style of the 1950s and 1960s were erected in place of the old buildings.

Some important moments in Iran’s history have been witnessed by the Golestan Palace, such as the Constitutional Transition, the coronation of the first and second Pahlavi dynasties. Golestan Palace’s complex consists of 17 buildings, including palaces, libraries, and halls. During the 131-year rule of the Qajar kings, almost all of this complex was established. On several occasions, such as coronations and other major celebrations, these palaces have been used. It is also made up of three primary libraries, including the photographic archive, the manuscript collection, and the record archive.

Golestan Palace’s complex consists of 17 buildings, including palaces, libraries, and halls; some are:

Takht-e Marmar (Marble Throne)

This spectacular terrace, known as the Marble Throne, was designed by the order of the Qajar dynasty’s Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834) in 1806. Iranian elements such as tile work, mirrors, stucco, lattice windows, and paintings decorate the terrace. The fine marble throne on the terrace is built out of Yazd Province’s famous yellow marble. The throne is made of sixty-five pieces of marble and was designed by Mirza Baba Naqash Bashi (“head painter”) of the Qajar court. Mohammad Ebrahim, the Royal Mason, oversaw the construction and several celebrated masters of the time worked on the execution of this masterpiece. During the reigns of Fath Ali Shah and Nasser ed-Din Shah (r. 1848-1896), the architectural details, and other terrace ornaments, were completed. This hall was used on ceremonial occasions, including Reza Shah’s 1925 Napoleon-style self-coronation.

Khalvat e Karim Khani (Karim Khani Nook)

Panoramic view of the Karim Khani Nook

There is another terrace on the right corner of the Marble Throne, called Khalvat-e Karim Khani (Karim Khan Nook). Dating back to 1759, this building was part of the Zand dynasty’s interior residence of Karim Khan.  The Karim Khani Nook’s basic structure is identical to the Marble Throne. On this terrace, there used to be a marble fountain and Naser al-Din Shah lay there smoking his Qalayan and enjoying the lovely, lush garden. The fountain has been removed and the Naser al-Din Shah marble tombstone has been brought here. Artwork by the great and well-known Iranian artist of the Qajar period, Kamalol Molk, depicts a terrace with a fountain. Water drained from the fountain into the pond from a subterranean stream (the king’s qanat) and was later used to irrigate the palace grounds.

Containers Hall (Talar e Zoruf)

Visitors will see the chinaware that Qajar Kings got as a gift from European kings and queens such as Napoleon Bonaparte, Nicholas I of Russia, Queen Victoria, and so on in the container hall (Talar-e Zorouf) This building replaced the Narenjestan building to the north of the Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj).

Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj)

Ivory Hall is a spacious hall that is used as a dining space. It was decorated with some gifts given by European monarchs to Nasser ed-Din Shah. A watercolor by Mahmoud Khan Saba (Malek osh Shoara) shows the exterior view of this hall during the Qajar era, among the collections of the Golestan Palace.

Negar Khaneh and Royal Museum

Next is the Negar Khaneh (Gallery of Iranian Painting), which shows a fine collection of art from the Qajar period. The portraits of the shahs wearing the jewels and crowns that tourists can see in the National Jewels Museum and pictures of daily life in Iran in the 19th century are particularly fascinating.

The Royal Museum (also called the Special Museum), a fascinating treasure chest of decorative art pieces and artifacts amassed by the shahs, is the next collection of rooms.

Pond House (Howz Khaneh)

Works presented to the Qajar court by European painters are housed in the Pond Building. The Pond House was used as a summer chamber during the Qajar era. Water from a subterranean stream system was pumped into small ponds inside the chambers by a special cooling system. The mechanism was built to move through as many summer rooms as required. To irrigate the royal gardens, the water was then channeled outside. This method is no longer in operation because of the adverse effects of humidity.

Mirror Hall (Talar e Aineh)

Mirror Hall, painted by Kamal ol Molk

The main rooms, including the sparkling Talar-e Ayaneh, are the highlight of the palace (Mirror Hall). The Peacock Throne, built between 1874 and 1877, was housed here until it was transferred to the National Jewels Museum. It was used in 1967 (25 years after he came to power) for the coronation of Mohammad Reza Shah and for royal weddings. Today it houses presents, including a collection of green malachite table decorations from Russia and fine porcelain from France, Germany, and the UK, as well as two adjoining halls.

Shams-Al Emarat

Shamsol Emare is one of the best places in the palace, where tourists can clearly see Iranian architecture mixing with European elements (Edifice of the sun). The King of Qajar wanted to have a large and comprehensive view of the capital, so he ordered the building of these towers. It was designed by master architect Moayer al-Mamalek and built between 1865 and 1867. There are two identical towers in the building; the exterior views include numerous arches, complex tile work, and ornate windows. This building’s two towers are in fact small versions of the Safavid viewing palace of Ālī Qāpū in Isfahan. Right now only the ground floor of this building is open for a visit.

Diamond Hall (Talar e Almas)

Located in the southern wing of the Golestan Palace, next to the Windcatchers building is the Diamond Hall. Due to the exceptional mirror work inside the house, it is called Talar e Almas (“the Diamond Hall”). The more subdued teahouse and restaurant below could well be more desirable. This hall’s construction dates back to Fath Ali Shah’s time. This hall was restored by Nasser ed-Din Shah, altering its look and replacing the arches of the hall with Roman arches.

Abyaz Palace

Finally, back near the entrance, the Ethnographic Museum houses the Abyaz Palace, featuring a collection of mannequins in traditional ethnic costumes. It is assumed that the structure was designed by Nasser ed-Din Shah himself, with a central hall wide enough to house a carpet sent by Sultan Abd ol Hamid.

The most outstanding building in the heart of historic Tehran is the Golestan Palace. It is bright, vivid, and full of aesthetically decorated figures made by talented Qajarian artists. In 2013, this elegant garden was registered on the UNESCO World Heritage List because it was built by combining Iranian fine art with European architecture and technology, which has become a phenomenon in the history and culture of Iran. The Golestan Palace, in its present state, is the culmination of around 400 years of building and renovation. It is officially run by the Organization of Iran’s Cultural Heritage.

Information Sources:

1. lonelyplanet.com
2. irandoostan.com
3. wikipedia

This beautiful metropolis, Tehran, has many amazing old museums and mansions that are its key tourist attractions. The Time Museum in Tehran is Iran’s only time museum; a fabulous collection of watches and clocks is assembled here. It is one of the tourist attractions in Iran linked to the Qajar period and belongs to 80 years ago, and is one of the buildings still standing in Tehran, sparkling like a diamond in the north of Iran’s capital. Particularly when visitors/travelers encounter ancient clocks, it is a very interesting museum. Compared to standard clocks that we know today, they work entirely differently.

Interestingly, in Tehran, Iran, the museum is one of the most beautiful and safest palaces for visitors/travelers to spend their leisure time. It is, however, one of the museums with a special theme in Tehran, which started its work 16 years ago and is regarded as the first Iranian Museum of Time. This museum’s architecture and decor are very fascinating and is very appropriate for those who are looking for a peaceful atmosphere in Tehran. Zaferanieh Street, Valiasr Street, Teheran, Iran, is the exact location of the Time Museum. As its location is in a popular neighborhood, accessibility to this incredible museum is very easy. Sa’ad Abad Palace, Niavaran Palace Complex, Tajrish Traditional Bazaar, Mellat Park, Valiasr Lane, and Iran’s Cinema Museum are all nearby attractions.

Outside view of the Time Museum

The Museum of Time was built during the Qajar Dynasty, the Mohammad Shah and Naser-al-Din Shah periods. This building was the house of an Iranian indiustrialist and merchant, Hussein Khodadad. Since ancient times, when the first clock was invented by primitive humans in 2000 BC, humans have felt the need to calculate time. Consequently, it is generally recognized as one of the earliest human inventions. Since the old days, the Time Museum has collected almost every clock and has put them on public display. It is the only museum which has such requirements in Iran.

The Time Museum building is approximately 80 years old. An aesthetician named Hossein Khodadad, however, bought this museum’s building in 1967. He wanted to turn this building into a museum as he was profoundly devoted to artworks. The perfection of this museum has been completely achieved by the many architectural changes since then. The evolution of time measurement has been there for all to visit and enjoy since ancient times.

The Time Museum building stands proudly in the center of a 5-acre park. Primary watch replicas such as sundials, water, sand, and fuel-based forms were displayed in the lush outdoor section of the museum, where visitors can closely interact with them and get acquainted with their shapes and functions. Two floors compose of the mansion. The production of mechanical watches from the seventeenth century to the twentieth century is on display on the first floor. The craft of watch-making compilation is represented in each of the hawk, pendulum, desktop, and wall standing watches. It appears that the wheels of time have depicted various arts such as sculpture, enamel, and mosaic.

Isfahani room at Time Museum

In the yard, there are several maquettes of old clocks that people can carefully study how they used to work. These clocks include sundial clocks, hourglass clocks, water clocks, and the like. Since the 17th century, the museum itself has exhibited all manner of clocks. The elegance of the Museum of Time Building hits any audience, without a doubt. Visitors can not think for hours about anything but the art and Iranian architecture of this museum by entering this magnificent and authentic mansion. The first floor is explicitly reserved for mechanical, pendulum, torsion, clock ships, and other clock types. These clocks’ outward presence clearly indicates that our ancestors cared for their decorations. In addition, there are also numerous calendars compiled since ancient times.

Conventional pocket watches owned by famous political and historical characters, as well as unique clocks relevant to time-stamping cards, change guards, ships, and army in various forms can be visited on the second floor of the museum. Visitors will see the development of time measurement instruments at the calendars spectacle, a prototype of the oldest dated Persian document, mechanical watches from ancient and pre-Islamic times to more contemporary ones. This floor of the museum also presents fascinating kinds of fossils from various geological periods and famous clocks and watches from artists and craftsmen.

Sun clock at Time Museum

Outside in the kitchen, there is also a café that sells delicious drinks and snacks or breakfasts. In this museum, too, there are documents related to the subject of time, mechanical clocks and other kinds of clocks in the museum, the clocks of famous people such as Naser Aldin Shah, Professor Hesabi. Besides Iran, countries such as Switzerland, England, France, and Germany have also acquired some of these clocks. Another part of the first floor of the Museum of Time is a lovely space called the Isfahani Room. This room’s skillful architecture is similar to the music room of the palace of Ali Qapu in Isfahan. This room’s ceiling is decorated with Isfahan carpet patterns and gold waterworks. The gypsum paintings designed by Adam, Eve, Abel, and Cain have had an incredible impact on this room in the Museum of Time.

Visitors will also find many odd clocks in the Museum of Time areas, such as a sun clock, hourglass, blue-mechanical clock, rope clock, candlelight clock, water clock, and fuel clock. The ship clock, two-stroke clocks, guard watches, ancient Iranian calendars, and time-measuring dishes in various parts of this building are other examples of watches and famous and old things that tourists will find in the Museum of Time.

Information Sources:

1. iranparadise.com
2. saadatrent.com
3. apochi.com